Greenbacks Crops

Production of cash crops for local, regional, and international markets is 1 pathway that has been used to generate funds to support technical advice, often linked to the market'south expectations, such every bit variety type or meeting packaging requirements.

From: Agronomical Systems (Second Edition) , 2017

Effects of commercialization of agronomics (shift from traditional crop to cash crop) on food consumption and nutrition – application of chi-square statistic

Suresh C. Babu , Prabuddha Sanyal , in Food Security, Poverty and Diet Policy Assay, 2009

Publisher Summary

Growing cash crops in lands where nutrient is traditionally grown can have a profound touch on food security. Effects of this shift, known as commercialization of agriculture, on food consumption and diet vary—a number of studies have documented disastrous furnishings, while others found a positive or neutral effect. Critics of commercialization of agriculture contend that if the resources that are used to produce agricultural consign crops were used instead to produce food for the local economic system, the problem of malnutrition in many countries tin can be reduced. This chapter examines the relationship between cash crops growing and household nutrient security and nutrition situation, using a chi-square statistical technique. The purpose of a chi-foursquare examination is to compare the observed frequencies with the expected frequencies derived under the hypothesis of independence. The chi-square process tin can exist legitimately applied simply if the categories in which the observations are sorted are independent of each other—i.e., only if the placement of each ascertainment into a particular category does not depend on the placement of whatever other observations.

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Effects of Commercialization of Agriculture (Shift from Traditional Crop to Greenbacks Crop) on Nutrient Consumption and Nutrition—Application of Chi-Square Statistic

Suresh C. Babu , ... Prabuddha Sanyal , in Food Security, Poverty and Nutrition Policy Analysis (Second Edition), 2014

Introduction

Growing cash crops in lands where nutrient is traditionally grown can take a profound bear upon on nutrient security ( Tshirley and Thieraut, 2013). Furnishings of this shift, known every bit commercialization of agriculture, on nutrient consumption and nutrition vary; a number of studies have documented disastrous effects, while others found a positive or neutral effect. Critics of commercialization of agriculture contend that if the resources that are used to produce agricultural export crops were used instead to produce nutrient for the local economy, the problem of malnutrition in many countries could be reduced. Proponents, on the other hand, argue that by exploiting comparative advantage, commercialization could raise subcontract incomes and improve nutrition (see, for example, von Braun et al., 1994; Bouis and Haddad, 1994; Babu and Rajasekaran, 1991b von Braun et al., 1994 Bouis and Haddad, 1994 Babu and Rajasekaran, 1991b ).

The emphasis on cereal production over the past three decades in many developing countries has resulted in low output prices and profitability, and has dampened agronomical growth (the growth in cereal production was two.three% during the flow 1965–1980 and declined to 1.ix% per year during the period 1996–2000; (meet, for example, Barghouti et al., 2004)).

Additionally, investment in the agronomical sector has also declined during the past three decades. In order to reverse this trend, agricultural commercialization has been identified equally i of the strategies by the donor agencies ( World Bank, 2002a; DFID, 2002 World Bank, 2002a DFID, 2002 ). Commercialization is seen as a common and powerful means to increment rural household income and food access, as well equally diversify product and reduce risks of income and food shortfalls (Ali and Farooq, 2003).

von Braun et al. (1994) emphasize that the process of commercialization raises income. Increased incomes further amend welfare, nutrient security, and nutritional status—all of which could have been worse in the absence of commercialization of agriculture for rural populations. Recent studies (Govereh and Jayne, 2003) have likewise demonstrated that commercialization of agriculture can lead to improved productivity of other crops through household level synergies and regional spillover effects, thereby improving nutrient security.

In lodge to conclude nigh the positive benefits of agricultural commercialization on food security and nutrition, it is important to reply a few specific questions: Is commercialization of smallholder agriculture a legitimate policy tool for improving food and nutrition security? Equally commercialization proceeds, which social and economic groups benefit from higher wages and incomes? In other words, what does the distribution of average income await like—Is it skewed toward specific economic or social groups and, if then, toward which group? Which socioeconomic group adopts commercialization and what are the implications for resource ownership and sharing? Does college household income from commercialization result in improved food consumption and better diet for all household members?

The issue is critically important since cash crops contribute to livelihood diversification and better food and nutrition security by directly increasing the farm household's income earning potential which, in plough, increases the household'southward spending potential. Second, since virtually greenbacks crops tend to exist labor-intensive, cash cropping entails a substantial expansion of the demand for hired labor. This employment effect for households that hire out labor may correspond significant livelihood improvement (Masanjala, 2006). Third, the introduction of greenbacks crops contributes to the development of rural fiscal markets, which partially relieves the cash constraints (Goetz, 1993). Finally, cash cropping opportunities are also accompanied by improved engineering science.

However, in that location are also reasons to suspect that the impact of cash ingather liberalization on the welfare of households may be more limited than is more often than not best-selling (Orr, 2000). Showtime, a critical supposition made is that equally subcontract households earn more income, the market place volition widen the scope for its welfare maximization since increases in income will assure household nutrient security by increasing the farm household'south access to food through the market. However, this impact chain is not at par with the empirical evidence from the nutrient security literature, which suggests that cash cropping is associated with missed opportunities for improving household welfare. The income and employment benefits of commercialization are not spread equally between households due to imperfect or missing factor markets. Second, due to weak financial markets for expenditure and consumption smoothing, when cash cropping opportunities increase household incomes, allocating more than income to nutrient purchases is not automated, as the literature seems to suggest (Paolisso et al., 2001). Nosotros also expand the upshot of commercialization to the idea of organic farming in the United states and to other countries in Europe. Nosotros also await at the economics of organic farming in the United States with regard to the sector's viability.

In calorie-free of the above set of issues, this chapter examines the relationship betwixt greenbacks crop growing and household food security and diet situation using a chi-square statistical technique. The purpose of a chi-square test is to compare the observed frequencies with the expected frequencies derived under the hypothesis of independence. It is appropriate in examining the relationship betwixt two bases of classification, since we are examining the relationship betwixt cash ingather growers and food security of the household and so determining the independence between cash crop growers and children's nutritional status. The chi-square procedure tin can be legitimately practical only if the categories in which the observations are sorted are independent of each other, i.east. only if the placement of each observation into a particular category does not depend on the placement of whatsoever of the other observations. In other words, the categories must exist both exhaustive and mutually exclusive—each observation must fit into one or another of the categories and no observation fits into more than than i. This procedure is appropriate to use since nutrient security, cash crop production, and nutritional status variables can exist classified into mutually sectional and exhaustive cases. We also demonstrate the application in STATA with a few illustrative examples that link the food security and the characteristics of the farmers.

A discussion of the concepts of commercialization and its touch on food consumption and nutrition and an overview of some of the main studies serves as a motivation for the empirical analysis. Nosotros conclude with a few policy implications from the results of this chapter.

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Volume one

Graham H. Fleet , in The Yeasts (Fifth Edition), 2011

2.ix Other Products

High-value greenbacks crops, such as cocoa beans and coffee beans, undergo processes that involve the action of yeasts (Schwan and Wheals 2003). Cocoa beans must exist fermented to generate the precursors of chocolate flavor, and diverse species of Saccharomyces, Hanseniaspora, Candida, and Pichia (including species formerly assigned to Issatchenkia) contribute to the procedure (Ardhana and Armada 2003, Schwan and Wheals 2004). Coffee beans are processed to remove pulp and other mucilaginous materials that surroundings the seeds, and species of Candida, Saccharomyces, Kluyveromyces, Saccharomycopsis, Hanseniaspora, Pichia, and Blastobotrys (Arxula) have been associated with these fermentations (Masoud et al. 2004, Schwan and Wheals 2003). Growth of unwanted species during cocoa and java bean processing can lead to chocolate and coffee products with significantly inferior quality. A vast array of traditional fermented foods and beverages is produced in African, Asian, and South American countries from raw materials such as maize, wheat, cassava, rice, soy beans, and fruit (Aidoo et al. 2006, Naumova et al. 2003a, Nout 2003). While details of the microbial ecology of these fermentations are still emerging, yeasts have prominent roles in both beneficial and spoilage contexts.

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Sustainable Food Systems and Agriculture

Aziz A. Karimov , ... Namukolo Covic , in Encyclopedia of Food Security and Sustainability, 2019

Production Practices and Systems

Wheat is an important cash ingather both for resource poor farmers as well as big commercial farmers and is cultivated in many parts of the world. It is the near widely grown grain crop as earlier indicated with product every bit divided betwixt developed and developing countries. More than than half of the global wheat output is produced in 75 developing countries, and more 90% of globally irrigated wheat is likewise cultivated in developing countries. On average, productivity has increased globally at a rate of 0.9% per twelvemonth (Ray et al., 2013). However, to meet the current population growth needs, this rate should be at to the lowest degree i.6% per year. Since land cropped with wheat has remained abiding in the recent years, any production increases should come from yield improvements. This would provide some environmental benefit with respect to reduced need for additional land. However, attention is needed to ensure that the related intensification of product practices do non lead to different forms of environmental degradation as trade-offs from fertilizer and pesticide use. In addition, attention is needed to exist paid to agrobiodiversity in the growing areas to mitigate against trends towards dependency on a few staple crops.

The major constraints for increase in wheat productivity include projected changes related to climatic change. These constraints include global warming, reduced availability of irrigation water and increased prevalence of some crop diseases. The projected global warming of betwixt 0.1 and 0.4   °C per decade is expected to reduce wheat yields by around v% to 8%. Climate variability models predict that increased drought will hit Mediterranean regions severely perhaps more frequently (Jiménez Cisneros et al., 2014). Many more plant diseases such as rusts, mildew, Septoria, Fusarium, viruses and bacteria are likely to become more prevalent because of climate variability. Such issues tin can negatively affect nutrient security from wheat and other grains by constraining the needed yield increases.

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Trends in nitrogen use and evolution in Pakistan

Abdul Wakeel , ... Munir Hussain Zia , in Nitrogen Assessment, 2022

5.iii.5 Cotton

Cotton is amid the key greenbacks crops of Pakistan, peculiarly in Punjab and Sindh provinces. The data from 1980 to 2019 are estimated, whereas from 2020 to 2070 it is predicted to anticipate the future demand and supply scenario from sustainability indicate of view. Red line shows the trend in Northward utilise in thou tons and dark-green bars show the cotton production in one thousand thousand tons ( Fig. 5.viii). A smoother trend can exist seen in nitrogen utilize during the menses of 20 years (1980–2000). During this period the nitrogen employ has increased from 133.28 one thousand tons to 522.81 thousand tons. Then in the post-obit years from 2004 to 2019 abrupt transitions can exist observed. A concurrent cotton product tendency can exist seen with highest recorded production 7.28 million tons in 2004, whereas lowest corporeality ane.48 million tons in 1983. Considering future scenario, it is of import to apply N in ingather production in an efficient way to fulfill the demand of the people.

Figure 5.eight. Predicted nitrogen (Due north) use in accordance with the increase in cotton production from 1980 to 2070 (NFDC, 2020).

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Crucifer-legume cover ingather mixtures for biocontrol: Toward a new multi-service paradigm

Antoine Couëdel John Kirkegaard Lionel Alletto Éric Justes , in Advances in Agronomy, 2019

two.2 Non-host/host/trap effects

The dormant catamenia betwixt two cash crops is a primal flow to break the cycles of weeds and pathogens that can't survive long without a suitable host. Cover crop species are also susceptible to pathogens and must be called to avoid the hosting of pathogens that would otherwise refuse during blank fallow periods. Crucifers are break crops, or non-hosts, of numerous pathogens ( Angus et al., 2015) although despite their release of toxic compounds, they are also host or moderate host of some fungal pathogens (Lu et al., 2010), and nematodes (Ntalli and Caboni, 2017) which can reduce their effectiveness equally cover crops in certain conditions. Crucifers are too non-hosts of important beneficial organisms such as mycorrhizal fungi which can be a disservice compared to other embrace crops families where mycorrhizal-dependent cash crops follow in the crop sequence (Gosling et al., 2006). Crucifers have also been shown to deed equally trap crops where they can concenter certain pest species such equally nematodes (Kruger et al., 2013; Melakeberhan et al., 2006) and insects (Ahuja et al., 2010; Badenes-Perez et al., 2004), but interfere with the feeding or reproductive cycles to reduce pest populations.

Embrace ingather mixtures can provide a potential solution to host plant issues of crucifers via several mechanisms (Fig. 3). Starting time, a dilution effect occurs as the density of crucifers is halved in bispecific mixtures, making the pest less able to locate and infest its host plants (Boudreau, 2013; Root, 1973). Second, a concrete and visual barrier upshot is enhanced by the companion crop by modifying the architecture of the stand, the pest or pathogen spread can then exist disrupted equally well every bit the free energy required by insects or nematodes in the search for the host institute (Ratnadass et al., 2012; Vandermeer, 1989). Third, a alter in host plant morphological traits tin can effect from plant-found interactions in mixtures to diminish the ability of the pest to notice a host (Ratnadass et al., 2012). Finally, a change in host susceptibility and attractiveness to pests can also outcome from found-constitute interaction by irresolute the host plant chemical composition, such as the production of repellent chemicals or flavour changes (Ratnadass et al., 2012).

The same mechanisms can also reduce the pathogen host effects of legumes, reducing diseases in the legume and generating improved Northward-related services. However, special care must be taken when designing appropriate mixtures equally legumes can likewise host numerous pests and diseases (Ahuja et al., 2010; Ntalli and Caboni, 2017) generating undesirable changes to the pathogen host status of the cover crop. The trap crop furnishings of crucifer cover crops on nematodes or insects could likewise be reduced in mixtures due to the legume component, simply no studies are available on this phenomenon.

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Evolution of Water Saving Techniques for Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) in the Barren Environment of Punjab, Islamic republic of pakistan

Abdul Gaffar Sagoo , ... Muhammad Waqas , in Emerging Technologies and Direction of Crop Stress Tolerance, Volume one, 2014

21.1 Introduction

Sugarcane, one of the well-nigh important cash crops, plays a vital role in the national economy of Pakistan. It is an important source of income and employment for farmers, specially during the wintertime season. The challenge of increasing sugar from sugarcane has been erratic, and there has been insufficient rainfall distribution to support the entire crop bike ( Pires et al., 2008; Cheavegatti-Gianotto et al., 2011). Sugarcane requires about 1200   mm of almanac rainfall equally distributed throughout the entire growing period. The sugarcane ingather requires 88–118   kg water/kg cane and 884–1157   kg h2o/kg sugar to produce found and ratoon crops (Ashok et al., 2011). In Pakistan, it has been estimated that rain meets simply 25% of the water needs of the crop; the remaining 75% of water is met through boosted irrigation, but water is not always available in the desired quantities and crops oft suffer from lack of available soil moisture. The prevalence of drought during the peak growth period of sugarcane results in a considerable reduction in its yield ability. Drought remains a research topic of high priority for agricultural scientists (Medici et al., 2014) causing reduction in growth and development of plants due to the cessation of jail cell expansion directly related to carbon assimilation and photosynthetic rates (Benesová et al., 2012; Zingaretti et al., 2012). In gild to realize the full benefits of the land and ecology resources, it is necessary to place the plants in the field in such a pattern that there is the least competition amongst them for essential growth factors.

Proper orientation of plants in the field plays a pregnant part in the development and functioning of vital plant organs. Planting geometry provides the right direction of plants in the field in the grade of multi-row strips, which facilitate efficient and expeditious intercultural operations, conserve irrigation h2o with saving in labor, and permit systematic planting and treatment of intercrops. Institute spacing appropriately affects the number of plants, plant summit, institute health, and constitute canopy, which are directly associated with plant yield. The present written report, therefore, was designed to investigate the touch of soil wet depletion and planting geometry on the yield and quality of carbohydrate pikestaff nether barren climatic weather in Pakistan on ii soils: silty clay and sandy loam.

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THE POLITICAL Economic system OF Free energy AND AGRICULTURE IN THE THIRD WORLD

Alfred Levinson , ... Aguibou Yansane , in Agriculture and Free energy, 1977

ALTERNATIVE MODES OF AGRICULTURE

In the Sahel the imposition of a cash-crop economy on the peasants by the French, which is continued past the successor governments, inhibited the product of subsistence crops to the detriment of the health of the people of that region. A shift away from greenbacks-crops for consign toward increased product of millet, rice, and legumes (cowpeas) would non merely increase the calorie intake but likewise increase the quality of the intake of proteins. Cotton should be grown to the extent that it can be utilized in the domestic textile and clothing industries. Shifting away from technologies that are intensive in their use of human being labor should continue, although this may actually require more human labor. Much of the manure produced by the nomads' cattle is lost. Paying the herders to collect the dung as they move their herds would significantly increase the availability of nitrogenous fertilizers. Providing them with a wooden cart to be attached to one of the animals would suffice. The cart could be manufactured locally, perhaps even by the nomads themselves.

However, the key to increasing yields in the Sahel is water. Without adequate amounts of water, increasing fertilizer apply on crops will not significantly increase yields. There are basically three methods of increasing the supply of water available for agriculture: runoff agriculture; irrigation from groundwater; and irrigation from reservoirs produced by dams on the Senegal and Niger Rivers. The bones requirement for runoff agriculture is a rainwater catchment that provides enough water for the crop to mature. This method was developed almost four thousand years agone to permit crop production on lands receiving as little as 100 mm average rainfall. Tuareg nomads in Niger use this method for developing pastureland [x]. This approach works best for deep-rooted crops, such every bit trees and shrubs, which tin can tap stored water and depend less on frequent rainfall.

At that place are big groundwater resources in the Sahel. For the crystalline basement areas of Upper Volta information technology has been estimated that the yearly replenishment by rainfall exceeds by 10 to 100 times the present needs of the population [17], while the three aquifer systems of the Continental Interclaire-Hammaden, Maestrichtien, and Continental Terminal hold reserves estimated at several hundred billion m3 of h2o. Irrigation involving the pumping of groundwater requires between one-tenth to one-fifth every bit much investment per unit of irrigated surface as irrigation using impoundment dams. The former method enables the land and h2o resources to be developed more than rapidly.

Information technology is estimated the Manentali Dam planned on the Senegal River would gargle 330,000 ha in Mali and provide 100 Mw of electrical ability. The proposed Selingue Dam on the Niger would irrigate forty,000 ha in Mali and provide forty Mw of power. This would represent a six-fold increase in the irrigated acreage of Mali.

Improve command of water can be had by unproblematic sluices, weirs, or embankments. While these don't give the control that a dam would, they tin can increase cropping areas and yields in most years. They cost footling and can exist managed by local people. Water conserving irrigation methods such as trickle irrigation would save much precious h2o. Unfortunately they are costly, peculiarly for field crops.

Information technology is estimated that 50 to 60 one thousand thousand tons of wood are consumed annually in the Sahel-Sudan for cooking. If solar cookers were used only on a half-fourth dimension basis, 25 to 30 one thousand thousand tons of forest could be saved. Also, the utilization of solar water heaters and solar distillation for public service needs would save some other 25 to xxx meg tons of wood.

Instead of using a diesel fuel engine to pump water from a well or to pump water for irrigation one tin use a solar pump. There are several Masson-Girardier solar pumps in operation in the Sahel. A small solar pump (i/3 hp) has been in operation in Bussey-Bangou, Niger since 1969. Information technology pumps well water from a depth of 12 g at a rate of vi to 7 chiliadthree/60 minutes. The solar collectors cover an area of threescore m2. The toll of operating drilled wells with diesel fuel pumps is very high, varying from xx CFA francs/miii ($.x/mthree or $120/A-ft) to $.fifty/m3 in Northern Niger. This compares with $25/A-ft for irrigation water in the U.S. Using a solar pump for pumping water from a well for watering animals would toll 60% more than than water pumped with a diesel pump. Irrigation h2o pumped past solar power would toll 15% more than water pumped by diesel with diesel fuel at $i.00/ gal. However, it is estimated that if the solar pump were mass produced, the cost would drib 80% [4]. This would make solar pumping cheaper than diesel. In the Sahel the cost of solar pumps varies from 6-10 one thousand thousand CFA francs ($13,000 -$23,000). D.R. Rao and K.S. Rao have developed a cheaper solar pump with fewer moving parts than the Masson-Girardier pump [13]. The use of pumps for irrigation would make possible yr-round cultivation, thus significantly improving the lot of the peasant, assuming the increased income is not extracted by the government.

Although the Sahel doesn't contain any highly windy regions (average current of air speeds over v m/sec or 11 mph), multivane fans could be used for pumping h2o for cattle where ground water is available. Engineers at Oklahoma State Academy have designed a air current energy storage arrangement to pump water for irrigation in Federal democratic republic of ethiopia [12]. The air current generator electrolyzes water. The hydrogen thus produced is used to fuel a pump. It costs four.5 times more to pump h2o with the wind generated pump than with a diesel pump at $2.50/gal diesel.

Too often new technologies have been introduced into a region without any assessment every bit to their issue on the people and the surroundings of that region. Even with such plainly benign technologies such as solar free energy, intendance should be taken in their introduction. The introduction of solar pumps in the Sahel for watering cattle could damage the plant cover surrounding the well, through overgrazing.

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Intellectual holding rights of biotechnologically improved plants

Antoine Harfouche , ... Vincent 1000. Shier , in Constitute Biotechnology and Agriculture, 2012

Publisher Summary

While the private sector primarily focuses on classical greenbacks crops where markets are large, the public sector is often left to develop biotechnologies for minor, specialty crops that are important to developing countries. Protecting the intellectual property (IP) in agronomical biotechnology helps advance economic and social development. However, at that place are IP concerns in developing countries and a need for greater protection and admission. This chapter reviews the major types of IP in agricultural biotechnology with reference to rights and requirements for protection. The rights and requirement include: constitute breeder's rights, constitute variety protection (PVP), plant patents, utility patents, cistron patenting, material transfer agreements (MTAs), trademarks, merchandise secrets, know-how, and geographical designations of origin. An overview of IP-related technology transfer (TT) is provided, shedding light on the liberty-to-operate (FTO) and risk-management issues that are critical to scientists. A example written report based on an FTO analysis is followed by a discussion of important concerns raised past developing countries related to IP protection and access. The strengthening of IP protection and access necessitates a potent collaboration betwixt the public and individual sectors, with the public sector pursuing IP protection as vigorously as the individual 1.

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Vulnerability of Water Resources to Climate

C. Gordon , ... A.M. Mensah , in Climate Vulnerability, 2013

5.19.viii.2 Permanent Systems

Permanent field tillage has been associated with traditional cash ingather production in the woods region. The crops involved are cocoa, oil palm, rubber, and kola for the market place (Hunter 1969). In contempo times, all the same, and particularly in the woods–savannah transitional zone, cashew and mango have go very important tree crops. The food status of the soil under this farming organisation is largely assured through decomposition of dead vegetation from the crops on the land. The produce is sold for greenbacks. Tree crops may be interplanted with nutrient crops in the initial stages of the subcontract when the tree canopies are not well formed. Cocoa trees are necessarily interplanted with food crops such as plantain and bananas.

Farm sizes are relatively bigger, and there is the use of hired labor. The right of use of land for cash crop farming is usually guaranteed for fairly longer periods through outright purchase or long leasehold. Share-cropping arrangements besides exist between state owners and tenants. Individuals belonging to land-owning groups negotiate with members of their respective groups for putting lands nether permanent field cultivation. Benneh (1973) has indicated that a member of the state-holding group who grows cash tree crops has greater control over his piece of country, which strengthens the individual'south interests in the land. This could be understood every bit one of the ways in which the traditional land tenure system is being transformed.

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